INTRODUCTION

Buccoo Reef lies to the north of the southwestern tip of Tobago, between 11⁰ 10'N and 11⁰ 12'NLatitude and 60⁰40' Wand 60⁰ 51' W Longitude. The present reef system represents a Holocene formation (ca. 10,000 12,000 yrs. BP) lying on a Pleistocene carbonate platform (James and Ginsburg, 1979). This platform characterises the adjacent terrestrial geology of southwestern Tobago, from Little Courland (Mount Irvine) Bay in the north to Little Rockly Bay in the south (Maxwell, 1948).
The Buccoo Reef system spans an area of approximately 7 sq. km. It is characterised by an arc of 5 emergent reef-flats, dissected by seaward channels to the north, an extensive gently-sloped fore-reef, a reef lagoon with numerous patch reefs, and the Bon Accord lagoon fringed by a mangrove swamp to the south (Figure 2). Due to the extent of the reef system and its proximity to both the coastal mangrove swamp to the south, and a sea-grass bed in the Bon Accord lagoon, the area is representative of 3 ecosystems that are physically and functionally inter-related. It is for this reason that the area is appropriately referred to as the Buccoo Reef complex.
Over the past 4 decades, the growth of marine-oriented activities has led to the development of the Buccoo Reef complex as the primary marine tourist attraction in Trinidad and Tobago. Recognition of the resource value of the Buccoo Reef complex, particularly in terms of potential contribution to the national economy, resulted in its designation, in 1973, as the country's only marine restricted area, under the Marine Act, 1970.
Utilisation of, and associated impacts on, the reef environment emphasised the need for protection and conservation measures, and several management-related recommendations have been proposed (Goreau, 1967; Andren and Thorsiund, 1969; Environmental Systems Incorporated, 1972; Kenny, 1976; Wood, 1979; Forestry Division, Ministry of Food Production, Marine Exploitation, Forestry and the Environment, 1981; and Institute of Marine Affairs, 1985). The resource potential of Buccoo Reef was further emphasised in a proposal for the establishment of the Buccoo Reef National Park (Thelen and Faizool, 1980).
The location, extent and popularity of the Buccoo Reef complex attracted research that generated information relevant to protection of the reef environment and resource management. Previous studies included mapping of the reef and bathymetry, hydrology and hydrography of its marine environment, reef ecology, and an assessment of both natural and anthropogenic impacts (through visitor use) on the shallow reef biota (Kenny, 1976). Studies were also conducted on the petrology of the Bon Accord beach sands (Hudson, 1979), the formation and structural characteristics of patch reefs in the reef lagoon (Hudson, 1984), and the extent and biological characteristics of the fore-reef slopes (Laydoo, 1985).

COMPONENTS OF THE BUCCOO REEF COMPLEX

Bon Accord Mangrove Swamp:

From Sheerbird's Point in the east to Pigeon Point in the west, the Bon Accord lagoon is bordered by a mangrove forest comprised mainly of the Red Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle). The mangrove swamp forms a belt several hundred metres wide, and indications are that it is either an old mangrove community, or that conditions for growth are close to optimum (Goreau, 1967). Most of the western part of the mangrove forest was destroyed by hurricane Flora in September, 1963, while some has been artificially cleared at Sheerbird's Point for beach improvement.
The mangrove roots support a rich marine epibiota and include sponges, hydroids, algae (Caulerpa sp., Dictyota sp., Ulva sp., Codium sp., Padina sp. and Chaetomorpha sp.), anemonies (Aiptasia sp.), ascidians (Botrylloides sp., Symplegma sp.) and bivalve molluscs (Isognomon sp., Pinctada sp.). The ichthyofauna associated with the mangrove root community included snapper (Lutlanus sp.), butterfly fish (Chaetodon sp.), trunkfish (Lactophrys sp.), barracuda (Sphyraena sp.), tarpon (Megalops sp.), surgeon fish (Acanthurus sp.) and parrot fish (Scarus sp.). The hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) was also observed at this locality (Kenny, 1976).

Bon Accord Lagoon:
The Bon Accord lagoon, bordered by mangrove swamp to the south and by the reef lagoon to the north, is partially enclosed to the east by a spit at Sheerbird's Point or 'No Man's Land'. The floor of the lagoon extends to a depth of 6m in some areas, and its composition varies from mud in the east to muddy sand in the west (Kenny, 1976). The benthic biota in the eastern part of the lagoon comprises mainly macro­phytic algae (Acetabularia sp.), while to the west an extensive bed of sea-grass (Thalassia testudinum) occurs. The sea-grass community comprises algae (Bryopsis sp., Dictyota sp., Chaeto­morpha sp.), sea-urchins (Lytechinus variegatus), grazing molluscs (Strombus sp.), Atlantic pearl oysters (Pinctada radiate) and holothurians or sea cucumbers (Kenny, 1976).

The Reef Lagoon:
The reef lagoon encompasses the majority of the shallow areas of the Buccoo Reef complex, bounded on the seaward side by the broad arc of reef flats. Bottom topography is variable and generally is undulating with numerous depressions or channels to the south, and comparatively flat to the north (Kenny, 1976).

Three main features characterise the reef lagoon:

i). Sediment substratum: The majority of the floor of the reef lagoon is composed of carbonate sediment derived mainly from corals, molluscs and calcareous algae (principally Halimeda sp.). Most of the surface of the sandy substratum is barren, best exemplified at the area known as the 'Nylon Pool'.

ii). Patch Reefs: Throughout the reef lagoon there are small formations of living coral, generally characterised by one to a few species, dependent on location. Four types of these patch reefs have been identified (Hudson, 1984). To the south, and in Bon Accord lagoon, patch reefs of finger coral (Porites porites) and coral rubble encrusted with the calcareous alga (Halimeda sp.), occur. The patch reefs on the western flanks of the reef lagoon consist of thickets of staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis), while those on the eastern margins comprise staghorn coral and fire coral (Millipora sp.). The patch reefs in the northern areas of the reef lagoon principally comprise the large boulder-type formations of star coral (Montastrea sp.) and brain coral (Diploria sp.). Together with sea-fans (Gorgonia sp.) and other octocorals, and numerous colorful species of reef fishes, these patch reefs are popularly known as the 'Coral Gardens'. The geographic distribution of patch reef types in the reef lagoon is probably controlled by such factors as water depth, wave exposure, water circulation, salinity and turbidity (Hudson, 1984).

iii). The Blue Hole: This feature is located in the eastern part of the reef lagoon, between the Nylon Pool and the Coral Gardens. The Blue Hole probably represents a relict of an earlier channel from the reef lagoon seaward through the Outer and Eastern reef flats. It is suggested that this channel has since become closed by the lateral growth of the edges of the Outer and Eastern reef flats (Kenny, 1976). The Blue Hole is approximately l0 m deep and has a sandy substratum. The fringe is characterised by a faunal assemblage dominated by corals, particularly brain coral (Dioloria sp., Colpophyllia sp.), porous coral (Porites asteroides) and starlet coral (Siderastrea siderea) (Kenny, 1976).

Reef Flats:
Five emergent reef flats arc from Pigeon Point in the west to Buccoo Bay in the east, and are known as Pigeon Point Reef, Western Reef, Northern Reef, Outer Reef and Eastern Reef respectively. The reef flats are separated by sediment channels of varied dimensions and depths, the widest and deepest of which is the Deep Channel between the Western and Northern Reef flats.

The reef fiats are generally characterised by a narrow reef crest to seaward and a more extensive back-reef towards the reef lagoon. The reef crests coincide with the breaker zone, and represent the shallowest reef feature within the Buccoo Reef complex. Due to the turbulent nature of the breaker zone, the faunal composition of the reef crests is limited to wave-resistant species.

The reef crest fauna is character-ised by stony corals. The star coral (Montastrea annularis) is dominant on the reef crests at Pigeon Point, Western and Northern Reef flats, while the elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) occurs at all the reef crest localities (Kenny, 1976). Generally, the back-reef zones of the reef flats are characterised by talus comprised of coral rubble and carbonate sediment (Kenny, 1976).

The Fore-Reef Slopes:
To the west of the arc of emergent reef flats, the fore-reef slopes gently to a depth of approximately 20m. To the east, the fore-reef slopes to a depth of approximately 15 m, while to the north the fore-reef slopes gently to depths below 30m (Laydoo, 1985).
The benthic fauna of the Buccoo Reef fore-reef is characterised by corals, particularly large colonies of stony corals. In the shallow fore-reef zone (2-6m deep), the elk-horn coral (Acropora palmata) is common, while large colonies of brain coral (Diploria sp.), starlet coral (Siderastrea sp.) and star coral (Montastrea sp.) characterise the benthic fauna and topography of the deeper fore-reef zones. Talus, composed mainly of elk-horn coral (Acropara palmata) rubble, and dead, standing skeletons of elk-horn coral, characterise the substrate of the shallow fore-reef zones (Laydoo 1985).
To the north, where the fore-reef is most extensive, there is a predominance of large closely-occurring stony coral colonies, interspersed with narrow, sandy-bottomed crevices. Indications are that the potential for growth and development of the Buccoo Reef complex is greatest to the north of the arc of emergent reef flats (Laydoo, 1985).

RESOURCE UTILISATION AND IMPACTS

Several activities associated with visitor use, at localities within the Buccoo Reef complex, have been in practice almost daily over the past 20 years or more. These activities are primarily linked to the reef tours in glass-bottomed boats, and include anchoring of boats and the thrill of reef-walking on shallow back-reef areas at the Outer Reef flat, and collection of marine specimens as souvenirs, either individually or through the local curio outlets.
The resultant impacts from these activities are today evident over an extensive back-reef area at the Outer Reef. Most of the corals here are broken, trampled or crushed, leaving an escarpment of coral rubble overgrown by algae. The area is still currently used as a reef-walking site, removing the possibility of natural recovery through coral recruitment and regeneration.
There exists also the threat of pollution through the introduction of untreated or partially-treated sewage into the marine environment at Buccoo Bay and Buccoo Reef (Laydoo and Heileman, 1987). Sewage pollution threatens coral reefs in two principal ways. Untreated sewage effluent results in organic nutrient enrichment of receiving waters. This would cause rapid increases in biological production, and eutrophication (deterioration of life-supporting quality) through depletion of dissolved oxygen in coastal waters. These impacts would be manifested by increased phytoplankton densities, decreased water transparency, organic enrichment of sediments, and the eventual obliteration of living corals by the overgrowth of benthic algae (Sloan, 1982). In addition, treatment of sewage by chlorination could result in the introduction of chlorine into the marine environment, and chlorine is toxic to marine life.
The implications of sewage pollution in the Buccoo Reef environment are two-fold. Firstly, the reef would lose its importance as a tourist attraction, with a subsequent impact on those who earn their livelihood through reef tours and related activities. Given the present extent of damage at the popular reef-walking site, the impact of sewage pollution on reef ecology is of grave concern.
Notwithstanding the above, the pollution also creates health risk users of the affected coastal waters, especially children. This results of direct exposure to pathogenic organisms introduced with untreated or partially treated effluent from adjacent sewerage treatment plants (Laydoo and Helleman, 1987).

PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT - THE FUTURE

Of all man's impacts on the Buccoo Reef complex over the years, perhaps the most significant is the inability to control and obviate those activities land and in the marine environment that are detrimental to the reef system. The lesson is clear that laws and regulations by themselves, extant since 1973 are ineffective in the protection important natural resources like Buccoo Reef. Equally lucid is the fact that uninformed, unsensitised, unmotivated user-public cannot be expected to contribute meaningfully to the protection of our environment and the rich natural resources it sustains.
The Tobago House of Assembly (T.H.A.) is currently instituting mechanisms in an effort to redress the follies of the past. The T.H.A., in conjunction with the Institute of Marine Affairs (I.M.A.), a local statutory body, has established a research programme aimed at the development of the natural resource potential of the Buccoo Reef complex, and the management of user activities. Relevant legislation is to be amended to reflect a practical and positive approach to the utilisation Buccoo Reef as a natural resource. The Buccoo Reef Restricted Area is soon be re-designated the Buccoo Reef National Park, with new clearly identifiable boundaries that encompass the critical habitats of this unique marine ecosystem. A park management plan is to be formulated for implementation in the near future.
Public concern and involvement also manifest. The Crusoe Reef Society (C.R.S.), formed in October, 1985, is charitable organisation of concern citizens from all walks of life, who a committed to the protection and conservation of the coral reefs around Tobago, principally through implementation. In collaboration with the T.H.A. and the I.M.A., several projects have been completed to date. These include the demarcation of a navigation channel for shallow draught vessels through the reef lagoon, the refurbishment and donation of a reef patrol vessel to the T.H.A., and a preliminary investigation of the sources and impacts of sewage pollution on the reef environment.
However, it is in the field of public education and sensitisation that perhaps the most significant progress has been made. Lectures and field trips have been conducted by the I.M.A. and the C.R.S. for schools, organisations and the general public in both Trinidad and Tobago. The C.R.S. is committed to the production and dissemination of relevant educational material for schools and the general public.
The future now looks bright for Buccoo Reef. Its destruction by man will soon be a thing of the past. Its utilisation as a place of recreation, tourism and education, indeed as a National Park, is imminent. The natural and economic potential of the reef resources of Tobago can finally be realised, without damaging and destroying these dynamic, colourful and valuable gardens under the sea. The Buccoo Reef complex is but our first priority.



REFERENCES

Andren, Land A.E. Thonslund, 1969, Investigation report of the effects on the Buccoo Reef from tourist development at Pigeon Point, Trinidad and Tobago. Fisheries Resources Division, F.A.O. Rome. (cyclostyled).
Environmental Systems Incorporated, 1972, Remote sensing data analysis for an ecological and planning study for Bon Accord/ Buccoo area, Tobago. Phase II - Part I: Descriptive material; Part II: Analytical conclusions. P.O. Box 2525. Knoxville, Tennessee. 37901, U.S.A.
Forestry Division, 1981, General management plan: Buccoo Reef National Park. Draft technical document. Forestry Division/O.A.S. project on the establishment of a system of National Parks and other Protected Areas. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Food Production. Government of Trinidad and Tobago.
Goreau, T.F., 1967, Buccoo Reef and Bon Accord Lagoon, Tobago. Observations and recommendations concerning the preservation of the reef and its lagoon in relation to urbanisation of the neighbouring coastal islands. Memorandum to Permanent Secretary (Ag.), Economic Planning Unit. Prime Minister's Office. Government of Trinidad and Tobago.
Hudson, D., 1979, Petrology of Bon Accord beach sands, southwestern Tobago. W.I. Undergraduate thesis (Unpubl.). Concordia Univ. Montreal, Canada. 147 pp.
- 1984, Patch reef zonation on Buccoo Reef, Tobago. In Abstracts: 18th Meeting of Assoc. Isl. Mar. Lab. Carib. Institute of Marine Affairs. 13-17 August, 1984.
Institute of Marine Affairs, 1985, Executive Summary: Ecological Survey of Reefs around Tobago. Technical Report. Institute of Marine Affairs. 47 pp.
James, N.P. and R.W. Ginsburg, 1979, The seaward margin of Belize Barrier and Atoll Reefs. Special Publ. No. 3. Internat. Assoc. Sedimentologists. pp 153 - 171.

Kenny, J.S., 1976, A preliminary study of the Buccoo Reef/Ron Accord complex, with special reference to development and management. Dept. Biol. Sci. U.W.I. Trinidad. 123 pp.

Laydoo, R.S., 1985, The Fore-reef slopes of the Buccoo Reef complex, Tobago. Technical Report. Institute of Marine Affairs. 22 pp.
-- and L. Heileman. 1987. Environmental impacts of the Buccoo and Bon Accord Sewage Treatment Plants southwestern Tobago. A preliminary report. Institute of Marine Affairs and Crusoe Reef Society. 27 pp.
Maxwell, J.S., 1948, Geology of Tobago. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. Vol. 59. pp.801 - 854.
Sloan, N., 1982, Threats to the corals of Bermuda. In: The Bermuda Marine Environment. Vol.111. Bermuda Biol. Stat. Spec. Publ. 18. p.103.
Thelen, K.D. and S. Fairool, 1980, Plan for a system of National Parks and other Protected Areas in Trinidad and Tobago. Forestry Division. Ministry of Agriculture Lands and Food Production. Government of Trinidad and Tobago.

Wood, H.E., 1979, Management of Buccoo Reef. Caribbean Conservation Association Workshop, Tobago, 23rd April - 12th May, 1979.

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